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The Inca Rulers

Archaeological Sites

 

 

 

 

OLLANTAYTAMBO

Ollantaytambo is probably Peru's best-preserved Inca town. lt is a modem, albeit traditional, town built upon old foundations in colonial and republican times, the result of an ongoing process of amalgamation of architectural styles. There are, of course, numerous Inca ruins around Ollantaytambo, but currently used bridges, roads, houses, waterways and farmland also all bear the distinct imprint of Inca craftsmanship.

Ollantaytambo lies in the Urubamiba valley, at the northwestern end of the valley portion referred to as "The Sacred Valley of the Incas", generally considered to begin at Pisaq, around 87 miles upriver. The area was probably conquered and the town built under the reign of Inca Pachacuti (around 1438-1471AD). Its position at the confluence of the Urubamba and Patacancha rivers seems to have been chosen primarily for ease of defense and as a base from which to undertake further conquests to the north and west. The majestic constructions of the Temple sector may also indicate a further, as yet unknown, reason for this particular location. Manco Inca, the successor to Atahualpa who rebelled against the Spanish invaders in 1536, successfully defended Ollantaytambo, inflicting on Pizarro's troops one of their greatest defeats.

The ancient traveler to Ollantaytarnbo would have followed the roads, paved with stone slabs, which led to Cusco, Pisaq and Machu Picchu. Before arriving at this Inca city one had to pass through one of the fortified gates which guarded the entrance to the city: Intipunku, Tiyupunku or Wayrapunku. The two entrances of Tiyupunku and the Inca road leading to ¡t are still easily discernible, flanked on the south by a set of defensive terraces and on the north by steep rock. In the west wall two large characteristic Inca trapezoidal niches remain to be seen. A "guard house" lies immediately behind the gate. The Spaniards never got this far; having been met by Inca warriors at earlier fortifications. Following the Inca road along the "Wall of Hundred Niches", parallel to the old, still functioning water canal, one approaches the city center.

The grid in which Ollantaytambo has been laid out is trapezoidal in shape and characterized by "canchas" or four-sided walled compounds in which a group of rectangular buildings are arranged around a central open space, leaving open spaces in the four corners. Characteristic high gabled roofs, trapezoidal niches and doorways, and ringstones and stone pegs, to fasten the roof constructions, are all still in place and some are still in constant use. Two adjacent canchas build one block and each one of these had a particular name, possibly the name of the family or of their ayllu or clan. While the main square, the Plaza de Armas, is surrounded by colonial and republican buildings, its location probably corresponds to one of the open spaces, or pata, that the Inca used as central places.

There is a clear two-fold division of Ollantaytambo, each part of which has distinct architectural features. While the street-facing walls of the southern half of the town are built with masonry of the "Imperial Inca" style with cut and fitted stones, the northern half presents unworked fieldstone walls. This may correspond to the Inca -and Pre-Inca division of society into sections -upper vs. lower, left vs. right, etc.- a division into what anthropologists call moieties, ¡.e. groups with, among other things, specific ceremonial functions. A dual partitioning of settlements is also found at other planned Inca towns such as MACHU PICCHU. In Ollantaytambo, however, there is a second part of the settlement located on the other side of the Patacancha river, called Arajama, just to the south of the "Water Temple". The issue of the spatial distribution of moieties in Ollantaytambo is far from settled - not surprising if one considers the dearth of scientific investigation undertaken.

The wrongly named "Fortress" of Ollantaytambo, to the east of the Plaza de Armas, was most probably a sacred district, which is why some prefer to call ¡t "Temple Hill". The original topography has been extensively altered to accommodate the different buildings as well as the Terraces of Pumatallis. However, as is typical for Inca architecture, the natural curvature of the mountain has been maintained and the buildings blend into the steep terrain, adapting their form and layout to the natural topography. This distinct characteristic of Inca architecture is linked by some scholars to the religious importance attributed by the Incas to natural features such as mountains, streams, rocks, lakes, etc.

The constructions on "Temple Hill" extend in a horseshoe shape around the Terraces of Pumatallis. The temple sector lies to the south, a funerary sector stretches to the north, and both are separated by the middle sector. The pivotal point of the site layout lies at the point where two stairways, next to impeccably carved terraces, separate two paths that lead to either the temple or the middle sector.

Many of the buildings of "Temple Hill" were never completed as attested by the "Wall of the Unfinished Gate". Next to ¡t stands an enclosure with ten niches, a particularly fine example of cut-stone Inca masonry.
Evidently, the unfinished "Sun Temple" and the area around ¡t was worked on for a long time an d was to become the central part of this complex. Six enormous cut and partially carved pink rhyolite boulders, brought from a quarry across the river 3 nobles away, are set upright and the spaces between them filled with narrow fillet stones. Higher up, to the southeast, are two unfinished terrace walls made out of pink rhyolite which hint at the magnitude intended for the building which was never completed.

Near the base of the "Wall of the Six Monoliths" an 1148-feet long ramp, used to transport the building material, has retaining walls up to 52-feet high and rises in a gentle 8' slope from the valley floor.

The middle and funerary sectors of "Temple Hill" are considerable less impressive. Most of the structures are'one floored, one room structures, but some very narrow niched rooms may have served to store, and display, particularly valuable items in the niches there is simply not enough space for human occupation. Excavations back in the 1930's revealed rows of exquisitely cut and set green stones underneath ordinary rustic walls, reminiscent of the walls of the CORICANCHA. There are probably some surprises left in store for the next group of archaeologists to work at Ollantaytambo.

One of the most striking features of Ollantaytambo is the extensive terracing of the lower slopes of the Urubamba Valley. Some of the carefully worked terrace groups cover over 2296 vertical feet of slope. Terracing at Ollantaytambo takes on proportions, in terms of quantity and quality, which largely exceeded the immediate needs of the population. To some they have a symbolic meaning.

The enormous volume of materials moved to create these works of agricultural engineering reflect not only the power of the Inca to mobilize a tremendous workforce, but also their advanced know-how. Irrigation of the terraces of Ollantaytambo is artificial. A web of small canals captures the water from small streams and distributes ¡t along the terraces. The "Andenes", as terraces are known in Spanish, are very carefully built with attention being paid to the kinds of soil and fill used for optimum drainage, as well as to their location and angle of exposure to the sun and to the winds.

Planting on these fields was a complex matter involving plant-husbandry and crop rotation, which followed an agriculture calendar, directed by astronomical measurements carried out at observation points around the empire. The legendary success of the Incas' agriculture system can be gauged by the amount, size and refinement of' the storehouses distributed over the high slopes surrounding Ollantaytambo.

MACHU PICCHU

Machu Picchu is clearly the hest-preserved Inca archaeological site in existence. lt boasts some very fine Inca stonework and carefully constructed terraces set in a lush and humid subtropical environment. The harmonious blending of architecture and natural topography which is so typical of Inca town planning can be seen here in its full splendor.

The excellent conservation of Machu Picchu is partly due to the fact that the Conquistadores never reached it, although ¡t was certainly abandoned shortly after their arrival. According to the generally accepted chronology, construction at Machu Picchu could not have begun earlier than 1438 AD under Inca Pachacuti. This leaves roughly one century for construction, use, and abandonment of the site.

Machu Picchu is a relatively small Inca site, with the central area measuring about 2296 by 984-feet. The settlement sits above a narrow ridge and is surrounded by a perimeter wall. Another wall separates the agricultural and residential areas. On the whole there is an architectural emphasis on separation, which gives the impression of different quarters. The number of quarters identified varies from one author to another. The site is clearly divided in two halves, the upper (hanan) and'lower (hurin) city. A series of contiguous open courts or plazas are located between them. The finer stonework can be found in the upper half, while most of the simpler habitations can be found in the lower half. Most of the special function structures, like the tower with the curving wall called "Temple of the Sun", which appears to have served as an observatory, the "Room with the Three Windows" and the excellently worked three-walled building generally referred to as the "Main Temple", ¡le in the upper half.

The "Intihuatana", or "Sun's Tying Post" is to be found on a small hill on the hanan-side of the city. lt is a stone post with a rectangular cross-section standing upright over a flat surface with one step and some lateral extensions carved into natural bedrock. It was definitely one of Machu Picchu's major features. A second Intihuatana was positioned upriver, near the modem power plant, and it is likely that several other observation points and posts have still gone unnoticed or he destroyed. The Intihuatana of Machu Picchu is the only such structure to remain fairly intact; Spanish priests had all such stones destroyed seeing them as objects of worship. Inca priests used such "sundials" to measure the changing of the seasons. In all probability information about measurements taken at different points throughout the empire were exchanged and correlated. In this way the exact day at which it would he best for planting to begin on the many and far apart fields reserved for the Inca and the Sun could be precisely determined. Serious archaeoastronomical investigations may in the future shed more light on our understanding of the relationship between Inca astronomy, architecture and agriculture.

Machu Picchu has given rise to more speculation than any other archaeological site in Peru, with the possible exception of the Nasca Lines. The Yale expedition which reached Machu Picchú on the 24th of July Of 1911 led by a local peasant, had actually set out to find the fortress of Vilcabamba, refuge of the four Rebel Incas. Hiram Bingham, leader of the expedition, believed erroneously that Machu Picchu was Vilcabamba. What sort of settlement Machu Picchu was is still a matter of dispute, nevertheless ¡t is no longer unanimously considered a fortress as ¡t once was.

The reasons for choosing this specific location within the Urubamba Valley for building Machu Picchu remain unknown. Ease of defense is suggested by the steep slopes surrounding the site and constructions such as the draw-bridge on the Inca road leading to Machu Picchu, near the gate of Intipuncu and the perimeter wall. There are many other hilltop citadels distributed along the Urubamba Valley, some with even larger terracing systems than that of Machu Picchu.

The mountain of Huayna Picchu, which may not be the tallest, but is certainly the most prominent mountain in the area, may have also played a part. Not only because of the terraces carved into the steep upper slopes, but because in a cave in its north face sits the so-called "Temple of the Moon". In this subterranean building Inca masonry of the finest quality, including a monumental trapezoidal gate, trapezoidal niches and series of steps carved into bedrock, can be found. The difficult access to its location and its orientation towards a high mountain-peak indicate ¡t being an important Inca shrine. This, however, is only speculation.

Judging by the extent of the terracing, agriculture appears to have been of major importance at Machu Picchu. The amount of cultivable and terraced land by far exceeds the needs of the population. As there are only 216 rooms, many of which only have three walls, the estimated population figures for Machu Picchu borders 1000. lt must be remembered, however, that there are many other smaller settlements distributed in the area around Machu Picchu, it is therefore not an isolated outpost. Despite its relatively small size it can safely be considered to have been the administrative and ceremonial center of this region.

It has been suggested that coca was grown at Machu Picchu in large quantities in order to supply Cusco's great demand for the sacred leaf. Coca grows well in this region and large quantities were certainly required for the endless succession of ceremonies conducted at the capital. lt can be assumed that the Inca grew and harvested a wide range of products typical of the warm and humid environment for transport to Cusco, proof of this must await further investigations.

SACSAYHUAMAN

The "Fortress" of Sacsayhuamán has long been well known as one of the most famous and imposing of all Inca ruins. The Conquistador Pedro Sancho, in 1534, had difficulty in finding a point of comparison to explain to his fellow Europeans the magnitude and perfection of Sacsayhuamán. Its most salient feature today is the gargantuan size of the boulders used in the construction of its zigzag shaped retaining walls, which include a block whose weight has been estimated at 128 metric tons.

The archaeological site ís located above and immediately to the north of Cusco and comprises two overlooking hills, "Fortress Hill" and "Rodadero", located either side of a wide plain. Both hills have been extensively terraced and the foundations of many buildings are visible on the surface. Sacsayhuaman was used as a quarry beginning in 1537, under the pretext of preventing the Indians from taking ¡t over and threatening the city. By 1561 a prohibition to remove stones was issued, but the damage done was already considerable. Many of Cuscos' oldest buildings, including the cathedral, are made with stones brought from Sacsayhuaman.

Three levels of zigzagging terrace walls to the south of the plain, finely made with huge cut and dressed stone boulders, present narrow access stairways which make the passage from one level to the next difficult for large groups of people. To the east of the highest point of "Fortress Hill", on the southern side of the plain towards Cusco, the foundations of an unusual circular tower, Muyucmarka, and the scattered remains of Paucarmarca and Sallacmarca, two tall rectangular buildings (so-called towers) which early accounts mention, can be seen. On the south side of the hill, the foundations of a group of interconnecting, rooms, referred to rather poetically as the "Religious Sector", were revealed by excavations.

On the northern side of the plain the conservation of the monuments is not as good. The stones with which Rodadero Hill was terraced are generally not as large nor as well worked. The "Jincana"- sector stands out because of the extreme precision with which the natural bed-rock has been transformed into rows of polished stone steps which climb up to a flat top from two sides. Because they represent one of the finest examples of Inca bedrock carving ¡t is referred to as the "Inca's seat", although there is no indication of such a use.
Other salient features of the site of Sacsayhuamán are the so-called "Baño del Inca" (literally: "The Inca's Bath", the "Amphitheater" and the many "Inca Seats". The Baño del Inca is a square trough made with typically carved stone blocks in Inca style, which used to receive its water via a canal from the Inca reservoir at Checan. Troughs and fountains are a recurrent feature of important Inca sites such as OLLANTAYTAMBO and MACHU PICCHU. What is referred to by the name of "Amphitheater" is a large circular open space, surrounded by low walls, which originally would have presented many niches. A similar arrangement at the nearby site of Kenko surrounds a huge upright boulder and possibly has religious significance.

Just as the function of both of these structures remains hypothetical, the use made of the many other "Inca Seats", right angled, smoothed cuts into natural bed-rock, is unknown. They may have served to display important religious objects -such as the funeral bundles of prominent ancestors- at the large ceremonies which, ¡t is believed, took place at Sacsayhuamán.
The function of the "Fortress of Sacsayhumán" remains unclear and ¡t most probably served many different purposes. lt is clearly a monumental building constructed to inspire awe. The open plain was certainly used for large public ceremonies, a use confirmed by colonial accounts and re-enacted yearly at the Inti-Raymi festival.

The popular interpretation of Sacsayhuamán as a fortress derives from its hilltop location and the three levels of zigzagging terrace walls to the south of the plain. Cusco's outer defenses were, however, probably much better served by other fortifications further away from the city. Nevertheless the site was used for last resort defense at the battle fought here between the Spanish invaders and Manco Incás rebel forces. Undoubtedly, this encounter was among the fiercest and bloodiest of the Conquista. The name Sacsayhuaman, in Quechua: "Satiated Falcon", may derive from the heaps of Indian bodies which remained after the battle. The eight condors on Cusco's Coat of Arms certainly refer to it.

THE KORICANCHA

The Koricancha, or golden enclosure, was the most important Temple of the Incas. It was dedicated to their most important deity: the Sun. The monks of the Dominican Order had their monastery and Church built on its foundations in the XVIlth century. The Church and convent still stand and function despite several earthquakes that severely damaged the colonial superstructure, but which left the Inca foundations undamaged - testament to the mastery of the Inca stone masons.

The old "Temple of the Sun", as ¡t was called by the Conquistadores, is located by the plazuela de Santo Domingo, the preserved Inca street of Intikijllo being. an old route towards Huacaipata, now the Main Square. lt stands on an artificially leveled and terraced piece of land on a ridge separating Cusco's two rivers. The later additions make it difficult to picture the original building upon which cloister, church and lately a modern glass-frame construction were built. In general terms Coricancha follows the same basic rectangular layout plan of an ordinary Inca house compound (Cancha). Oneroom structures were distributed around an open courtyard, surrounded by an enclosure wall, preserved to its full original height on the northeast side. One well-preserved side wall of the complex measures more than 60 meters in length.

The quality of construction at Coricancha is superb, arguably the finest of all Inca constructions. All stones have been cut, set without mortar, as is typical for Inca masonry, and subsequently polished flat with sand and water. For the Incas the color and maybe even the place of origin of the stones used in their constructions seems to have been very important. The stones used for Coricancha are a good example. A special type of black Andesite was brought from the quarry of Huaccoto, 15 miles from the city. This kind of stone is only found in the most important Inca buildings and was normally cut into rectangular blocks and sometimes, like at Coricancha, set in regular courses.
The perfectly worked, 19.6-feet high curved wall on the western side of Coricancha, which now supports the apse (or recess) and altar of the church, is the hallmark of Coricancha. About half of ¡t rose above the original inside floor level. While some authors claim that a ceremonial garden was laid out on terraces in front of this wall, and that this garden was populated by a myriad of life-sized plants and animals made out of precious metals, this seems extremely unlikely. These exaggerations refer to an important planting rite carried out, sometimes by the Inca himself, in a special courtyard of Koricancha whose exact location remains uncertain. Three times a year the carefully tended, hand-watered Maize garden, for which earth was brought from special locations, was adorned with golden corn plants. One of these is recorded in an inventory of Atahualpa’s ransom.

Inca Temples served primarily for the storage of ritual paraphernalia and-,for housing the priests and Acllakuna (consecrated women, also called "Virgins of the Sun") in charge of the cult. These temples were normally not to be entered by ordinary people. Most important ceremonies were held outdoors, either on open plazas or at special locations such as hilltops, rocks, caves, lakes, etc.

The mummies of Incas and their principal wives, which as in ancient Egypt were also their sisters, were highly revered and some of them were apparently found stored here. They were carefully arranged in front of the principal altar, Huayna Capac's mummy being the only one facing the solar disc.

All accounts agree that the interior of Koricancha was lavishly decorated with plates of silver and gold and precious stones, although there are serious disagreements as to the exact amount and location. According to some a golden disc representing the sun, facing the east and half the size of the room ¡t was in, was the most revered object of the temple'. Sixteenth century scholars suggested the possibility of several discs that would reflect sunlight in particular angles at different times. The use of Koricancha for, among other things, astronomical observation, appears a very plausible suggestion because deities such as Venus, both the morning and evening star, as well as the Pleiades were worshipped here.

The famous solar disc was apparently given to conquistador Mancio Sierra de Lenguizamo, who lost it in gambling that same evening.

Koricancha housed several deities including Inca gods such as the Sun (Inti), the Moon (Küla), the old creator god Viracocha, the god of thunder and lighting (Illapa) and probably foreign deities as well. Some accounts mention that deities of conquered peoples were held hostage in Cusco. Each one of them might have had a special place, a room, niche or niches, whose position and surroundings (gold or silver plating of niches etc.) were of great symbolic significance.

The significance of Koricancha is that it was the center of the Inca Ceque-sytem, which organized all major Inca huacas (holy places) along imaginary lines radiating out to all four corners of the empire. lt seems to have been the center of the religious administration of the solar cult fostered by the Inca State, and which was extended by them across South America.

Interesting details about the "Main Altar" of Koricancha come from a rough sketch of the representations on ¡t by the indigenous historian Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua. According to him, the representations would have been placed there by the first Inca, Manco Capac, and altered afterwards, during the reign of Inca Mayta Capac (around 1290AD). The document from where the sketch originated dates to the XVIIth century. The drawing depicts deities revered by the Inca in Koricancha: Viracocha, a creator god, Pachamama, or earth-mother, Chuquechinchay, at the same time a constellation and a mythical feline, the sun, the moon, the rainbow and the sea as well as others which are not easily identified.